Toxicology and Pharmacology Summit

Antigens are macromolecules of natural or synthetic origin; chemically they consist of various polymers – proteins, polypeptides, polysaccharides or nucleoproteins. Antigens display two essential properties: first, they are able to evoke a specific immune response, either cellular or humoral type; and, second, they specifically interact with products of this immune response, i.e. antibodies or immunocompetent cells. A complete antigen – immunogen – consists of a macromolecule that bears antigenic determinants on its surface. The antigenic determinant is a certain group of atoms on the antigen surface that actually interacts with the binding site on the antibody or lymphocyte receptor for the antigen. Number of epitopes on the antigen surface determines its valency.  For more:  http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference For abstract submission:   http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us:

Drug development is the process of bringing a new pharmaceutical drug to the market once a lead compound has been identified through the process of drug discovery. It includes preclinical research on microorganisms and animals, filing for regulatory status, such as via the United States Food and Drug Administration for an investigational new drug to initiate clinical trials on humans, and may include the step of obtaining regulatory approval with a new drug application to market the drug For more:   http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission:  http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us:   toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Forensic medicine is the branch of medicine dealing with the application of medical knowledge to establish facts in civil or criminal legal cases, such as an investigation into the cause and time of a suspicious death. Also known as forensic pathology . The primary tool of forensic medicine has always been the autopsy. Frequently used for identification of the dead, autopsies may also be conducted to determine the cause of death. In cases of death caused by a weapon, for example, the forensic pathologist by examining the wound can often provide detailed information about the type of weapon used as well as important contextual information. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Nanotoxicology is the study of the toxicity of nanomaterials. Because of quantum size effects and large surface area to volume ratio, nanomaterials have unique properties compared with their larger counterparts that affect their toxicity. Of the possible hazards, inhalation exposure appears to present the most concern, with animal studies showing pulmonary effects such as inflammation , fibrosis, and carcinogenicity for some nanomaterials . Skin contact and ingestion exposure are also a concern. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Toxicovigilance is the process of identifying and evaluating the risks of poisoning that exist within a community, and proposing and evaluating measures taken to reduce, eliminate or manage them. More specifically, the goal of toxicovigilance is to identify specific circumstances or agents giving rise to poisoning, or certain populations suffering a higher incidence of poisoning. This way, emerging toxicological issues can be revealed, such as the reformulation of a chemical product or a change to its packaging or labelling, the spread of a new illegal drug , or a hazardous environmental contamination. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

A biomarker , or biological marker is a measurable indicator of some biological state or condition. Biomarkers are often measured and evaluated to examine normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention. In medicine , a biomarker can be a traceable substance that is introduced into an organism as a means to examine organ function or other aspects of health. For example, rubidium chloride is used as a radioactive isotope to evaluate perfusion of heart muscle. It can also be a substance whose detection indicates a particular disease state, for example, the presence of an antibody may indicate an infection. More specifically, a biomarker indicates a change in expression or state of a protein that correlates with the risk or progression of a disease, or with the susceptibility of the disease to a given treatment. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission:

Therapeutic drug monitoring refers to the individualisation of dosage by maintaining plasma or blood drug concentrations within a target range therapeutic range, therapeutic window. There are two major sources of variability between individual patients in drug response. These are variation in the relationship between: dose and plasma concentration pharmacokinetic variability ; drug concentration at the receptor and the response pharmacodynamic variability For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

A drug interaction is a reaction between two drugs or between a drug and a food, beverage, or supplement. Taking a drug while having certain medical conditions can also cause a drug interaction. For example, taking a nasal decongestant if you have high blood pressure may cause an unwanted reaction. A drug interaction can make a drug less effective, increase the action of a drug, or cause unwanted side effects. Health care providers carefully consider potential drug interactions before recommending an HIV treatment regimen. Before taking HIV medicines, tell your health care provider about all prescription and nonprescription medicines, vitamins, nutritional supplements , and herbal products you are taking or plan to take. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.c

Drug development is time-consuming and costly. In principle, if all the processes are straight-forward, a drug can be developed in a seven-year period. In practice, drug development takes in excess of twelve years. Procedures are tightly regulated both for safety and to ensure drugs are effective. Of the many compounds studied with the potential to become a medicine, most are eliminated during the initial research phases. Clinical trials follow extensive research using in vitro and animal studies. Even so, many drugs are withdrawn or fail, never becoming approved as medicines . For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Toxicology testing , also known as safety assessment, or toxicity testing, is conducted to determine the degree to which a substance can damage a living or non-living organisms. It is often conducted by researchers using standard test procedures to comply with governing regulations, for example for medicines and pesticides. Much toxicology is considered to be part of the field of preclinical development. Stages of in vitro and in vivo research are conducted to determine safe doses of exposure in humans before a first-in-man study. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Ethnopharmacology is the scientific study of ethnic groups and their use of drugs. Ethnopharmacology is distinctly linked to plant use, ethnobotany , as this is the main delivery of pharmaceuticals . It is also often associated with ethnopharmacy. However, ethnopharmacology differs from ethnopharmacy in that it is the biological evaluation of how effective traditional medicines are, whereas ethnopharmacy deals instead with much broader considerations of drug use. These considerations are related to the perception, use, and management of pharmaceuticals within a given human society. Ethnopharmacology also relates to pharmacoepidemiology , the study of how drugs are used by and affect large numbers of people. When investigating a natural product used by a culture as a medicine, it is important that the methods of collection, extraction and preparation are the same or similar to those used by the ethnic group. This is to ensure consistency and legitimacy of the experimentation. For

Pharmacogenomics uses information about a person's genetic makeup, or genome, to choose the drugs and drug doses that are likely to work best for that particular person. This new field combines the science of how drugs work, called pharmacology , with the science of the human genome, called genomics . For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/index.php/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/index.php/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

The scientific study of the biochemical and biophysical characteristics of drugs at the molecular level and their interaction with, and effects on, biological macromolecules and cellular structures and processes. Includes instruction in molecular biology and biophysics; pharmacology of signal transduction, transmitters, and protein synthesis and release; receptors, protein interaction and binding; drug discovery and recognition; molecular toxicology ; drug design; pharmacodynamics ; developmental genetics; and studies of therapeutic strategies . For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Pharmacological tests are used when one wants to evaluate if a substance or plant extract is biologically active. There are many pharmacological tests and each one of them demonstrates various aspects that are important for the understanding of the mechanisms behind illnesses, their causes and cures. When people talk about pharmacological tests they often think about tests on animals, but in fact these form only a small part of all such tests. One can determine if a substance has an effect on isolated enzymes as well as human or animal cells by using a test tube. For instance, products for treating cancer are first examined in test tubes on cultivated cancer cells from tumours and only if they have a good effect are they then tested on other systems. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us:   toxico

Pharmacoepidemiology is the study of the utilization and effects of drugs in large numbers of people; it provides an estimate of the probability of beneficial effects of a drug in a population and the probability of adverse effects. It can be called a bridge science spanning both clinical pharmacology and epidemiology. Pharmacoepidemiology concentrates on clinical patient outcomes from therapeutics by using methods of clinical epidemiology and applying them to understanding the determinants of beneficial and adverse drug effects, effects of genetic variation on drug effect, duration-response relationships, clinical effects of drug-drug interactions , and the effects of medication non-adherence. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Immunopharmacology is defined as that part of pharmacology that deals with drugs acting on the immune system and, in addition, with the pharmacological actions of substances derived from the immune system . In order to lend sharper definition to the term immunopharmacology the subject matter has been divided according to clinical and pragmatic criteria. The division into immunosubstituion, immunosuppression, antiallergic substances and immunostimulation gives the heterogeneous material a tighter structure than would any classification according to origin, chemical structure or mechanism of action. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

The convergence of pharmacology and genetics, which deals with genetically determined responses to drugs. Pharmacogenetics is also concerned with the differences in the metabolism of medications among children, adults, and senior citizens; men and women; and people with various medical conditions. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

A teratogen is an agent that can disturb the development of the embryo or fetus. Teratogens halt the pregnancy or produce a congenital malformation . Classes of teratogens include radiation, maternal infections , chemicals, and drugs. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Pharmacovigilance , also known as drug safety, is the pharmacological science relating to the collection, detection, assessment, monitoring, and prevention of adverse effects with pharmaceutical products. As such, pharmacovigilance heavily focuses on adverse drug reactions, or ADRs, which are defined as any response to a drug which is noxious and unintended, including lack of efficacy the condition that this definition only applies with the doses normally used for the prophylaxis, diagnosis or therapy of disease, or for the modification of physiological disorder function was excluded with the latest amendment of the applicable legislation. Pharmacovigilance is concerned with identifying the hazards associated with pharmaceutical products and with minimizing the risk of any harm that may come to patients. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacol

Pharmacology is defined as a study of the action and uses of drugs. Applied pharmacology allows the physician to extend his knowledge of abstract pharmacology of a drug to the way the drug would actually function in medical practice. In other words, applied pharmacology deals with the usage of drugs, or how pharmacological information could be applied to therapeutics . For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

The functions of the immune system are to protect the body from invading infectious agents and to provide immune surveillance against arising tumour cells. It has a first line of defence that is non-specific and that can initiate effector reactions itself, and an acquired specific branch, in which lymphocytes and antibodies carry the specificity of recognition and subsequent reactivity towards the antigen. Immunotoxicology has been defined as the discipline concerned with the study of the events that can lead to undesired effects as a result of interaction of xenobiotics with the immune system. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Economic toxicology is a branch of toxicology deals with the selective effects of chemical substances on biological tissues. The Economic toxicology indicates to the unsafe effect involved with the use of food additives in food preservation and processing, man-made fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture. Economic toxicology shows the effects on micro organisms like bacteria, virus and fungi to inhibit their growth in food additives to not affect the human organisms. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Cancer is fundamentally a disease of regulation of tissue growth. In order for a normal cell to transform into a cancer cell, genes that regulate cell growth and differentiation must be altered. Genetic and epigenetic changes can occur at many levels, from gain or loss of entire chromosomes, to a mutation affecting a single DNA nucleotide, or to silencing or activating a microRNA that controls expression of 100 to 500 genes. There are two broad categories of genes that are affected by these changes. Oncogenes may be normal genes that are expressed at inappropriately high levels, or altered genes that have novel properties. In either case, expression of these genes promotes the malignant phenotype of cancer cells. Tumor suppressor genes are genes that inhibit cell division, survival, or other properties of cancer cells. Tumor suppressor genes are often disabled by cancer-promoting genetic changes. Finally Oncovirinae , viruses that contain an oncogene, are categorized as oncogenic be

A carcinogen is defined as any substance or radiation that promotes cancer formation or carcinogenesis. Chemical carcinogens may be natural or synthetic, toxic or non-toxic. Many carcinogens are organic in nature, such as benzo[a]pyrene and viruses. An example of carcinogenic radiation is ultraviolet light. Carcinogens prevent normal cell death from occurring so cellular division is uncontrolled. This results in a tumor. If the tumor develops the ability to spread or metastasize, cancer results. Some carcinogens damage DNA, however, if significant genetic damage occurs, usually a cell simply dies. Carcinogens alter cellular metabolism in other ways, causing affected cells to become less specialized and either masking them from the immune system or else preventing the immune system from killing them. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-co

Occupational toxicology is the application of the principles and methodology of toxicology to understanding and managing chemical and biological hazards encountered at work. The objective of the occupational toxicologist is to prevent adverse health effects in workers that arise from exposures in their work environment. The science of toxicology has many applications. One of these relates to exposure of people to noxious or hazardous agents during the course of their work. Field of occupational toxicology is the study of the adverse effects of agents that may be encountered by workers during the course of their employment. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Mutagenicity refers to the induction of permanent transmissible changes in the amount or structure of the genetic material of cells or organisms. These changes may involve a single gene or gene segment, a block of genes or chromosomes . The genetic change is referred to as a mutation and the agent causing the change as a mutagen. Mutations can either occur in germ cells or somatic cells. If the mutation occurs in a germ cell the effect is heritable. There is no effect on the exposed person; rather the effect is passed on to future generations. If the mutation occurs in a somatic cell, it can cause altered cell growth or cell death in the exposed person. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Genotoxins are mutagens; they can cause mutations. Genotoxins include both  radiation and chemical genotoxins. A substance that has the property of genotoxicity is known as a genotoxin. There are three primary effects that genotoxins can have on organisms by affecting their genetic information. Genotoxins can be carcinogens, or cancer-causing agents, mutagens, or mutation-causing agents, or teratogens , birth defect-causing agents. In most cases, genotoxicity leads to mutations in various cells and other bodily systems. Mutations can lead to a host of other problems, from cancer to a wide variety of different diseases.  Mutations can come in many different forms; genetic information can be duplicated, deleted, or inserted. For more:   http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission:   http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us:  toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells. Examples of toxic agents are a chemical substance. Treating cells with a cytotoxic compound can result in a variety of cell fates. The cells may undergo necrosis, in which they lose membrane integrity and die rapidly as a result of cell lysis. The cells can stop actively growing and dividing, or the cells can activate a genetic program of controlled cell death. For more:   http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission:  http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us:   toxicology@globalepisteme.com

The study of the therapeutic uses and effects of drugs in patients is called pharmacotherapeutics . The focus of pharmacotherapy is the patient, not the drug or the disease. Drugs do not behave in the same way in all individuals, and patientto-patient variability in drug response is very common. Therapeutic variability may be caused by differences in patient body size and composition, age, disease, environmental factors, and genetic influences. It may also be attributable to drug interactions that result from two drugs competing for the same mechanisms during a pharmacodynamic or an ADME process. A thorough understanding of pharmaceutical sciences is essential in providing appropriate pharmacotherapy, and in anticipating and avoiding drug interactions. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ Submit your abstract: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact u

Clinical Pharmacology promotes the rational use of medications in humans by studying their restorative effect to amplify the drugs effect and reduce the side effects. Clinical pharmacologists bridge the gap between science and the practice of medicine through innovative research, development and regulation of medications. Clinical Pharmacology educates healthcare professionals on a range of topics that involve the interaction between drugs and humans. These topic areas include, but are not limited to, pharmaceutical chemistry , biochemistry, drug metabolism, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, pharmacometrics, pharmacogenomics clinical pharmacology practice in the outpatient and inpatient settings, human toxicology, drug interactions and clinical drug trials. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ Submit your abstract: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract

Biochemical toxicology deals with the processes that occur at the cellular and molecular levels when toxic chemicals interact with living organism. Defining these interactions is fundamental to our understanding of toxic effects, both acute and chronic, and is essential for the development of new therapies, for the determination of toxic hazard and for the development of new clinical drugs for medicine and biocides for agriculture. On the other hand molecular toxicology is a field concerned with the various chemicals effect on living organism. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Computational toxicology is a vibrant and rapidly developing discipline that integrates information and data from a variety of sources to develop mathematical and computer-based models to better understand and predict adverse health effects caused by chemicals, such as environmental pollutants and pharmaceuticals . Encompassing medicine, biology, biochemistry, chemistry, mathematics, computer science, engineering, and other fields, computational toxicology investigates the interactions of chemical agents and biological organisms across many scales. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us: toxicology@globalepisteme.com

Clinical toxicology is a discipline within toxicology which is concerned with the impact of drugs and other chemicals on humans. The role of the clinical toxicologist encompasses the traditional therapeutic role, that is the management of patients with acute and chronic poisoning. In addition, the clinical toxicologist will usually provide expert advice via a poisons information service and will be familiar with the occupational and environmental impact of a wide range of chemicals. Clinical toxicologists are also likely to be involved in the development of strategies for the management of major chemical disasters, the evaluation of antidotes used against chemical warfare agents and the assessment of the adverse effects of pesticides and other chemicals whether resulting from a single exposure or chronic low‐level exposure. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ For abstract submission: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/t

Drug discovery involves the identification of screening hits, medicinal chemistry and optimization of those hits to increase the affinity, selectivity, efficacy/potency, metabolic stability, and oral bioavailability. Once a compound that fulfills all of these requirements has been identified, the process of drug development can continue, and, if successful, clinical trials. One or more of these steps may, but not necessarily, involve computer-aided drug design. A toxicology screen is a test that determines the approximate amount and type of legal or illegal drugs that taken. It may be used to screen for drug abuse , to monitor a substance abuse problem, or to evaluate drug intoxication or overdose. Toxicology screening can be done fairly quickly. The test is most often done using a urine or blood sample. In some cases, a sample of saliva or hair may be used. The results can show the presence of one specific drug or a variety of drugs at once. Further testing may be needed to determ

The risk assessment is based on a chemical characterization of the test article, published information from the toxicological literature, and tolerable exposure limits, which may be adopted from published guidelines or derived on the basis of available toxicology data. The objective of a toxicological risk assessment is to evaluate the potential health risks associated with exposure to leachable impurities, contaminants, or other residues in a medical device or drug product. Based on the data from a chemical characterization, the risk assessment is to make a determination as to whether the release of chemicals during the use of a medical device or drug formulation may represent a toxicological risk that is unacceptable from a regulatory perspective. TRA is a research-based evaluation comprised of four activities: Hazard identification and data evaluation; Exposure assessment; Dose-response analysis; Risk characterization. For more: http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/

An in vitro test is a study that is performed outside of a living organism. The test usually involves the use of isolated tissues, organs or cells. In contrast, an in vivo test is a study that is performed in living organisms. Both in vitro and in vivo methods can be used to predict the inherent hazard properties of chemical substances. However, results obtained from in vitro studies cannot often be used directly to predict biological responses of organisms to chemical exposure in vivo. That does not mean that in vitro data is of less value. In fact, in vitro test is gaining more attention in regulatory community since it can reduce the number of animals used significantly while offering reliable predictions for some toxicological endpoints. For more:   http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/ Submit your abstract:   http://www.globalepisteme.org/Conference/toxicology-pharmacology-conference/submitabstract Contact us:   to

Genetic toxicology is the study of how chemical or physical agents affect the intricate process of heredity. Genotoxic chemicals are defined as compounds that are capable of modifying the hereditary material of living cells. The probability that a particular chemical will cause genetic damage inevitably depends on several variables, including the organism’s level of exposure to the chemical, the distribution and retention of the chemical once it enters the body, the efficiency of metabolic activation and/or detoxification systems in target tissues, and the reactivity of the chemical or its metabolites with critical macromolecules within cells. The probability that genetic damage will cause disease ultimately depends on the nature of the damage, the cell’s ability to repair or amplify genetic damage, the opportunity for expressing whatever alteration has been induced, and the ability of the body to recognize and suppress the multiplication of aberrant cells. For more: http://www.

Forensic toxicology is the use of toxicology and other disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology and clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. The primary concern for forensic toxicology is not the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation or the technology utilised, but rather the obtaining and interpreting of the results. A toxicological analysis can be done to various kinds of samples. A forensic toxicologist must consider the context of an investigation, in particular any physical symptoms recorded, and any evidence collected at a crime scene that may narrow the search, such as pill bottles, powders, trace residue, and any available chemicals. Provided with this information and samples with which to work, the forensic toxicologist must determine which toxic substances are present, in what concentrations, and the probable effect of those chemicals on the person. Determining the substance ingested is often compl

Toxicologic pathology is a biomedical specialty that integrates the science of toxicology and pathology. Both toxicology and pathology are critical components of the safety assessment process used in predicting human and animal responses to drugs, chemicals, and therapeutic devices, including identifying the potential of these agents to cause cancer. The toxicologic pathology discipline also studies adverse environmental exposure responses in aquatic organisms, domesticated and wild animals, and humans. In addition to morphological diagnoses of organ and tissue pathology, toxicologic pathology includes identifying injury at the cellular, subcellular, and molecular levels to identify the health consequences of the adverse effects of drugs, chemicals, and therapeutic devices on aging, genetics, nutrition, immune function, developmental biology, reproduction, and brain development. The discipline of toxicologic pathology is heavily involved in development and safety assessment of new c

Environmental toxicology , field of study in the environmental sciences that is concerned with the assessment of toxic substances in the environment. Although it is based on toxicology, environmental toxicology draws heavily on principles and techniques from other fields, including biochemistry, cell biology, developmental biology, and genetics. Among its primary interests are the assessment of toxic substances in the environment, the monitoring of environments for the presence of toxic substances, the effects of toxins on biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems, and the metabolism and biological and environmental fate of toxins. Ecotoxicology can be defined as the study of harmful effects of chemicals upon ecosystems. This implies that ecotoxicology is concerned not only with the detections of chemicals per se, but with biological effects of toxic chemicals that contaminate or have contaminated the environment. These biological effects may be anything from a molecular effect in